The succession to Muhammad is clearly the key question in Shi'i Islam and the principal factor separating Shi' is from the Sunni majority. The question is not only who was the successor of Muhammad but also the nature of the role of this successor, for it is on both these points that Shi'is and Sunnis disagree.
On the death of Muhammad, all ad hoc assemblage of a number of the notables in Islam elected, by general consensus, Abu Bakr to be the Caliph or successor to Muhammad. This was envisaged as being a temporal appointment designed to continue the position of Muhammad as the head of the city of Medina and of a confederacy of tribes, which was the emerging Muslim state. A conspicuous absentee at this meeting of election was 'Ali, the Prophet's cousin and son- in-law. There were a number of persons who considered that in view of a number of statements made by Muhammad in his lifetime, 'Ali should have occupied the leading position - not only as temporal head [Caliph] but also as spiritual head [Imam].
In order to understand the personality of ‘Ali and his position it is necessary to return to the very beginning of Islamic history and trace, firstly, 'Ali’s part in it and, secondly, the close relationship between the Prophet and 'Ali. Thirdly, it is also necessary to examine those Traditions, many accepted by both Sunnis and Shi'is that are considered by Shi'is to mean that 'Ali was the rightful successor' of Muhammad.
The Prophet was brought up in the house of Abu Talib 'Ali's father and thus Muhammad was very close to his young cousin from the time of the Iatter’s birth. Indeed, the two may be regarded as foster-brothers, despite the difference in age between them.
'Ali was only nine years old when Muhammad first became aware of his prophetic mission. After Khadija, the Prophet's wife, 'Ali was the first person to acknowledge the Prophet's mission and become a believer. After 'Ali's conversion Zayd became a Muslim and then Abu Bah and others.
It was three years after the onset of Muhammad's mission that he decided to make a public announcement of it.
The occasion he chose was a gathering of his own clan. For Shi'is this meeting has a further significance, for, according to both Sunni and Shi'i sources, at this meeting Muhammad made a significant statement regarding ' Ali 's relationship to himself. The following is an account of that episode according to the history of Tabari, who is regarded by both Sunnis and Shi'is as one of the most reliable of the chroniclers of the life of the Prophet.
Tabari describes how, after the revelation of the Qur'anic verse: 'Warn your closest relatives’,[1] Muhammad prepared a meal and invited some forty members of the clan of 'Abdu'I-MuHalib [i.e. the Banu Hashim]. After the meal Muhammad was about to address the company when Abu Lahab made a jest and dispersed the gathering. And so Muhammad invited them again the following evening to a meal. The following is a description of what occurred after the meal in the words of 'Ali as recorded by Tabari:
Then the Apostle of God addressed them saying: ‘O family of ‘Abdu'l-Muttalib, by God, I do not know of anyone among the Arabs who has brought his people anything better than what I have brought you. I have brought you the best of this world and the next. God Almighty has ordered me to call you to Him. And which of you will assist me in this Cause and become my brother, my trustee and my successor among you.'
And they all held back from this while I [‘Ali], although I was the youngest of them in age, the most diseased in eyesight ,the most corpulent in body and thinnest in the legs, said: ‘I, O Prophet of God, will be your helper in this matter.’ And he put his arm around my neck and said: ‘This is my brother, my trustee and my successor among you, so listen to him and obey.' And so the people arose and they were joking, saying to Abu Talib [‘Ali’s father]: 'He has ordered you to listen to your son and obey him.
This passage is interpreted by Shi'is as indicating that from this early stage in Muhammad’s career and at a time when ' Ali was only about thirteen years old, Muhammad had already picked ‘Ali out as his successor.
Over the ensuing years 'Ali was constantly at Muhammad's side. When the night came for the flight from Mecca to Medina, it was 'Ali who took on the dangerous task of sleeping in the Prophet's bed and thus fooling the assassins that had been sent to murder the Prophet. After Muhammad's successful escape, 'Ali remained in Mecca long enough to settle the Prophet's debts and then together with some of the Muslim women he too slipped away to Medina.
A short while after the arrival of the exiles in Medina another significant event occurred . Muhammad decreed that each Muslim should become the brother of another Muslim. Thus Abu Bakr and ‘Umar became brothers, as did Talha and Zubayr, and ‘Uthman and ‘Abdu’r-Rahman ibn Awf. All authorities, whether Sunni or Shi'i, are agreed that 'Muhammad singled out ‘Ali to be his own brother.
The following is the account as given in the Sahih of at-Tirmidhi, a collection of Traditions accepted as authoritative by the Sunnis:
The Apostle of God made brothers between his companions, and ‘Ali came to him with tears in his eyes crying: ‘O Apostle of God! You have made brethren among your companions but you have not made anyone my brother.' And the Apostle of God said to him: You are my brother in this world and the next.
During the Medinan period 'Ali acted as Muhammad's secretary and deputy. Whenever there were important documents to be written, such as the treaty of Hudaybiyya, it was' Ali who wrote them. The Prophet's daughter, Fatima, was given in marriage to ' Ali and the children of this marriage, Hasan and Husayn, were the only grandchildren of the Prophet to survive in to adult life.
'Ali was one of the most courageous and able men in the Muslim army. He was appointed the standard-bearer at the battles of both Badr and Kbaybar. At Khaybar [AH 7] the following Tradition is related by several Sunni and Shi'i histories. This is the version found in a Sunni collection of Traditions, the Sahih of Muslim:
The Apostle of God said on the day of Khaybar: 'I shall certainly give this banner to a man who loves God and his Apostle and through whom God will give victory.' 'Umar ibn al-Khattab said: 'I never wished for leadership except on that day. ' And he also said: 'And so I leapt up towards it hoping to claim it as a right . ' And the Apostle of God summoned 'Ali , the son of Abu Talib, and gave it to him and said: 'Go! And do not turn aside until God gives you victory.
When the Prophet left to go on his longest expedition, to Tabuk, 'Ali was left in charge at Medina. According to some accounts, 'Ali felt insulted to be left with the women and children while, according to others, rumours were spread that 'Ali had been left behind because it was feared he would bring misfortune to the expedition.
In any case, 'Ali went to the Prophet voicing his discontent at being left behind. It was at this time, according to numerous Sunni and Shi'i Traditionists, that the famous Hadith, of Manzilar Harun [position of Aaron] was revealed .
According CO this Tradition, Muhammad said to 'Ali: 'Are you not Content to be with respect to me as Aaron was to Moses, except that after me there shall be no other Prophet.’ The implication was that' Ali was to be Muhammad's chief assistant in his lifetime and his successor after him.
An episode that has been given great prominence in Shi'i works is called the episode of the Mubahala. The usual Shi'i accounts of this episode are as follows: Muhammad in the ninth year of the Hegira sent out a series of letters to nearby
rulers, summoning them to accept Islam. at Najran. which was a Christian town on the route between Medina and the Yemen, the leaders assembled to decide what they should do.
After some discussion it was pointed out that Jesus had prophesied the Paraclete of Comforter, whose son would conquer the Earth. However, it was felt this could not refer to Muhammad who had no son.
Then a great book called al-Jami' was consulted which contained the writings and traditions of all the prophets. In this book reference was found to how Adam had seen a vision of one brilliant light surrounded by four other lights and was told by God that these were five of his descendants. Similar things were found in the writings of Abraham, Moses and Jesus.
And so it was decided to send a deputation of their learned men to Medina to ascertain the truth. At Medina, after a great debate, it was decided to engage in Mubahala [mutual cursing], referring the matter to God and calling down God's curse on whomever was the liar. It was at this time that the verse of Mubahala [Qur'an 3:61] was revealed.
The contest was set for the next day and all the people of Medina came out to witness it. Muhammad came out with only 'Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn and they stood under a cloak.
The Christians asked Muhammad why he had not brought the leaders of his religion and Muhammad replied that God had commanded this. Then the Christians remembered what they had read in al-Jami' and became convinced that Muhammad was the figure prophesied by Jesus. The Christians withdrew from the contest and agreed to pay tribute. From this episode, Muhammad, 'Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn became known as Ahl al-Kisa [the people of the cloak].
When the Qur'anic Sura of Bara'a was revealed towards the end of the year 9 AH and Abu Bakr was sent to read it to the people of Mecca, Muhammad sent 'Ali out after him and caused him to return. Then the Sura was given to 'Ali to take to Mecca to read. When questioned regarding this, the Prophet is reported, in both Sunni and Shi'i sources, to have said: 'Gabriel came to me and said: "Do not let it [the reading of the Sura] be performed by anyone other than yourself or someone from you [i.e. your family] on your behalf.”
'Ali's many personal qualities are amply attested to in various histories and collections of Traditions. Among the statements regarding 'Ali and his family made by the Prophet and accepted as authentic by both Sunnis and Shi'is are the following:
- There is no youth braver than 'Ali.
- No-one but a believer loves 'Ali and no-one but a hypocrite (munafiq) hates 'Ali.
3.l am from 'Ali and 'Ali is from me.
- The truth circulates with him (' Ali) wherever he goes.
- I am the City of Knowledge and 'Ali is its Gate (Bab).
- On one occasion the Prophet was about to eat some poultry and he said: '0 God! Send me the man you love most among mankind to eat this bird with me. 'And 'Ali came and ate with him.
- The Prophet said in reply to someone who had complained about 'Ali: 'What do you think of one who loves God and his Prophet and who in turn is loved by God and his Prophet?' Also: 'The most loved of women to the Prophet of God is Fatima and the most loved of men is 'Ali.
- On one occasion, the Prophet called 'Ali and began whispering to him. After a time those present began saying: 'He has been a long time whispering to his cousin. 'Later, the Prophet said: ' It was not I that was whispering to him but God.
- The Prophet took the hand of Hasan and Husayn and said: 'Whoever loves me and loves these two and loves their mother and father, will be with me in my station on the Day of Resurrection.
- The Prophet said: 'Hasan and Husayn are the chiefs of the youths of paradise.
It was during the last year of the Prophet's life that, according to Shi'is, he confirmed 'Ali's position as his successor. The occasion was the Farewell Pilgrimage when the Prophet performed the pilgrimage to Mecca for the last time. Having completed the rites of the Pilgrimagt" the Prophet set out on the return journey to Medina, accompanied by a large concourse of the Muslims, including all of his leading disciples. At a place called Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad caused the caravan to be stopped and from an improvised pulpit delivered an address. Once again, the principal Sunni and Shi'i sources show no disagreement over the facts of the episode. The following is the account given in Ibn Hanbal, a Sunni collection of hadith:
We were with the Apostle of God in his journey and we stopped at Ghadir Khumm. We performed the obligatory prayer together and a place was swept for the Apostle under two trees and he performed the mid-day prayer. And then he rook 'Ali by the hand and said to the people: 'Do you not acknowledge that I have a greater claim on each of the believers than they have on themselves?' And they replied: 'Yes!' And he took' Ali's hand and said: 'Of whomsoever I am Lord [Mawla], then 'Ali is also his Lord. 0 God! Be Thou the supporter of whoever supports 'Ali and the enemy of whoever opposes him.' And 'Umar met him [
AIi].after this and said to him: 'Congratulations, O son of Abu Talib! Now morning and evening [i.e. forever] you arc the master of every believing man and woman.
Finally there is the highly controversial episode in the last days of Muhammad's life which is usually called the Episode of Pen and Paper. Muhammad, while in his terminal illness and only days before his death, called for pen and paper. The following is the account related by al-Bukhari, the Sunni Traditionist, on the authority of Ibn 'Abbas:
When the Prophet's illness became serious, he said: 'Bring me writing materials that I may write for you something, after which you will not be led into error. 'Umar said: 'The illness has overwhelmed the Prophet. We have the Book of God and that is enough for us.' Then the people differed about this and spoke many words. And he [the Prophet) said: 'Leave me! There ought not to be quarrelling in my presence.' And Ibn 'Abbas went out saying: 'The greatest of all calamities is what intervened between the Apostle and his writing.
Shi'is claim that what Muhammad wished to write down was the confirmation of 'Ali's successorship. Sunnis have advanced various alternative explanations. Shi'is also claim that the Prophet died with his head in 'Ali's lap. Some Sunni Traditions support this while others state that the Prophet's head was on the lap of his wife, 'A'isha.
To 'Ali was given a number of privileges not accorded to the other companions of the Prophet. Apart from the fact that the Prophet's daughter was given to 'Ali in marriage, when many others including Abu Bakr and 'Umar had been suitors, 'Ali was the only man allowed to come and go as he pleased in the Prophet's house. At one stage the Prophet ordered all the doors of the various houses opening onto the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina to be blocked off, except for the doors from his own house and from that of 'Ali.
There are also a number of other statements which both Sunni and Shi'i sources agree were made by Muhammad and to which Shi'is point as evidence of the position of 'Ali and his family and the fact that 'Ali was Muhammad's successor:
- Hadith of the Two Weighty Matters (ath-Thaqalayn)
This is a very widely reported statement of Muhammad. The following is the version in the Sunni collection of Hadith by Ibn Hanbal: 'The Apostle of God said:
"I have left among you two weighty matters which if you cling to them you shall not be led into error after me. One of them is greater than the other: The Book of God which is a rope stretched from Heaven to Earth and my progeny, the people of my house. These two shall not be parted until they return to the pool [of Paradise].
This hadith, which is repeated in many slightly variant forms, is reported by some Traditionists to have been uttered by Muhammad on the road between Mecca and Medina. There has been some disagreement as to exactly who is meant by the phrase 'the people of my house' (Ahl al-Bayt). Some Sunni sources state that Muhammad's wives should be included. But Shi'i writers point to several Traditions that can be found in Sunni as well as Shi'i sources that confine the meaning of this phrase to 'Ali , Farima, Hasan and Husayn.
For example, when the verse of al-Mubahala was revealed (see above), several Sunni sources record that the Prophet then de fined the people of his ho use as being the four persons under his cloak. Similarly, when the verse of purification (Qur'an 33:33 , see p. 155) was revealed, according to the Sunni Traditionist, at-Tirmidhi, its meaning was confined to these four persons.
- The hadith of the Safina (Noah's Ark)
Once again many Sunni sources have reported this Tradition in various forms: 'My family among you are like Noah's Ark. He w ho sails on it will be safe, bur he who holds back from it will perish.
- On one occasion when four of the Muslims complained to the Prophet concerning something that ' Ali had done, the Prophet grew angry and said: 'What do you want from 'Ali? 'Ali is from me and I am from' Ali. He is the guardian [wali] of every believer after me. And in another context: 'You are my successor [i.e. guardian of the religion, wali] in this world and the next.
- The Prophet is reported to have said: 'No one may execute my affairs except myself and 'Ali.
- The Prophet said: 'As for 'Ali, Fatima , Hasan and Husayn, I am at war with whoever fights against these and at peace with whoever is at peace with these.
Apart from these and the previously-quoted Traditions which are accepted by both Sunnis and Shi'is, the Shi'is have numerous other Traditions extolling 'Ali:
I . The Fourth Imam is reported to have said: 'The Apostle of God taught 'Ali a matter [harf] which opened up one thousand matters each of which in turn opened up a thousand matters.
- 'Ali said: ' I am Muhammad and Muhammad is I.
- 'Ali said in the (Hadith an-Nuraniyya): 'Muhammad is the Seal of the Prophets [khatim al-anbiya] and I am the Seal of the Successors [khatim al-wasiyyin].
In addition to these hadith, certain verses of the Qur'an are held to relate to 'Ali and his succession to Muhammad:
- 'You are a warner and to every people there is a guide. Many Sources, including even Sunni ones such as as-Suyuti, acknowledge that when this verse was revealed, Muhammad said: ' I am the warner and you, O 'Ali, are the guide and through you will be guided those who are to be guided.
- Vour guardian [wali] can only be God, His apostle and those who say their prayers, pay alms [zakat ] and bow down before Cod' The word wali can mean either friend, helper or master. Many of the commentators both Sunni and Shi'i are agreed that this verse refers to ‘Ali and was revealed after 'Ali had given his ring away to someone in need who had entered the mosque while prayers were in progress. The verse itself can be translated: 'Those who pay alms while bowing down before God,' thus referring more closely to this episode.
The Events at the Saqifa
If, as the Shi'is assert, Muhammad had clearly indicated his desire that 'Ali should be his successor, how did it come about that Abu Bakr was elected the first Caliph?
This is avery complex matter and central to the whole issue is what occurred at the Saqifa (Portico) of the Banu. Sa'ida, a branch of Khazraj tribe of Medina. The facts of what happened are, in broad terms, agreed by the most reliable of both Sunni and Shi’i writers.
When Muhammad died, his daughter, Firima, her husband, 'Ali, and the rest of the family of Hashim, gathered around the body preparing it for burial. Unbeknown to them, two other groups were gathering in the city. One group consisted of Abu Bakr , Umar, Abu 'Ubayda and other prominent Meccans (the Muhajirun). and the second of the most important of the Medinans (the Ansar) .
This second group was gathering in the portico of the Banu Sa'ida: It was reported to Abu Bakr that the Ansar were contemplating pledging their loyalty to Sa’d ibn 'Ubada, chief of the Khazraj. And so Abu Bakr and his group hurried to the Saqifa.
One of the Ansar spoke first saying that as the Ansar had been the ones who supported and gave victory to Islam and since the Meccans were only guests in Medina, .the leader of the community should be from the Ansar. Abu Bakr replied to this very diplomatically.
He began by praising the virtues of the Ansar , but then he went on to point out that the Muhajirun (the Meccans) were the first people In Islam and were closer in kinship to the Prophet. The Arabs would accept leadership only from Quraysh and so Quraysh should be the rulers and the Ansar their ministers.
One of the Ansar proposed: ' Let there be one ruler from us and one ruler from you. For we do not begrudge you this matter but we fear to have ruling over us a people whose fathers and brothers we have killed (in fighting between Mecca and Medina before the conquest of Mecca by Muhammad).
And so the argument went back and forth until Abu Bakr proposed: 'Give your allegiance to one of these two men: Abu 'Ubayda or 'Umar.' And 'Umar replied: 'While you are still alive? No! It is not for anyone to hold you back from the position in which the Apostle placed you. So stretch out your hand . ' And Abu Bakr stretched out his hand and 'Umar gave him his allegiance. One by one, slowly at first, and then rushing forward in a mass, the others did likewise.
A pro-Shi'i historian, Ya'qubi, has recorded that one of the Ansar did briefly advance the claim of 'Ali during the discussions at the Saqifa but even from Ya'qubi's account it is clear that there was no real discussion of this claim.
It is possible to speculate as to the reasons why Abu Bakr was elected to the leadership. Certainly clan rivalry played a great part.
Within Quraysh there was a certain amount of envy and enmity towards the prestige enjoyed by the house of Hashim. Thus 'Umar is reported to have said to 'Ali's cousin at a later date: 'The people did not like having the Prophethood and Caliphate joined together in your house.
Abu Bakr, however, came from a relatively insignificant clan which had no pretensions to power. The Ansar had been contemplating choosing the chief of Khazraj as their leader and so when Abu Bakr came forward as a candidate. the Aws tribe who had been the great rival of Khazraj in Medina were only too eager to have this alternative.
Khazraj themselves were not totally united and several leading men of that tribe were among the first to pay obedience to Abu Bakr, presumably having some grudge against their chief. And so, all in all, Abu Bakr was an expedient choice for the majority, although it cannot be denied that he enjoyed considerable prestige in the community anyway.
With respect to the above speech by Abu Bakr at the Saqifa, in which he refuted the claims of the Ansar to the leadership and advanced the claims of Quraysh, Shi'i historians have pointed out that with respect to each of the points which Abu Bakr mentioned, 'Ali was superior to Abu Bakr.
Thus if Quraysh were closer in kinship to the Prophet than the Ansar, then 'Ali was closer than Abu Bakr. If Quraysh were first to accept Islam, then 'Ali was the first of them to do this.
If Quraysh were more entitled to leadership among the Arabs than the Ansar on account of their nobility, then' Ali and the house of Hashim were the most noble clan within Quraysh. And 'Ali's services to Islam and his close personal companionship with the Prophet, were at least equal, if not superior, to Abu Bakr's.
Moreover, if selection of the leader was to have been by consensus, then why was the house of Hashim, the house of the Prophet. not consulted? The best that can be said of the affair at the Saqifa is that, in the words of 'Umar, it was a falta, which means an affair concluded in haste and without reflection.
Both Sunni and Shi'i sources are agreed that after allegiance had been given to Abu Bakr at the Saqifa and at the mosque, 'Umar with a crowd of armed men marched to 'Ali's house demanding that he also pledge his allegiance to Abu Bakr. It is even indicated that a threat was made to burn down 'Ali's house if he refused.
Words were exchanged, and according to some accounts, even blows, nutil Fatima, 'Ali's wife and the daughter of the Prophet, appeared and put the attackers to shame by threatening to make a personal public appeal.
Both Sunni and Shi'i sources agree that 'Ali was urged by such persons as his uncle al-'Abbas, and even Abu Sufyan of the house of Umayya, to set himself up as an alternative leader and to have allegiance paid to him .Abu Sufyan even offered to fill Medina with armed men to enforce 'Ali's leadership.
It is impossible to assess, however, how strong the party that looked to 'Ali at this time was. But 'Ali refused to split the community, particularly when, shortly after Abu Bakr assumed the Caliphate, a large number of the Arabs apostatised from Islam, and a campaign had to be waged against them . Under the Caliphates of Umar and of 'Uthman also, 'Ali did not advance his claim.
There is disagreement between Sunni and Shi'i historians as to 'Ail's attitude to the Caliphate of Abu Bakr and later to those of 'Umar and 'Uthman. Sunni historians are anxious to portray 'Ali as having been loyal to the leadership of the first three Caliphates and indeed a trusted adviser in their councils.
Some of these sources even state that 'Ali gave his allegiance to Abu Bakr on the day of the Saqifa. The Shi'i historians, of course, completely reject this view. They portray 'Ali as feeling deeply hurt that his rights had been usurped in this
underhand manner and only refraining from open rejection of Abu Bakr in order to avoid dissension and strife at a critical time.
Shi'i sources maintain that 'Ail did not in fact give his allegiance to the new Caliph until after Farima's death, which occurred six months after the death of the Prophet.
Conflict between the Prophet's family and the new Caliph began from the day after the death of the Prophet. Fatima laid claim to the estate of Fadak, which had been the personal property of the Prophet and had come to him out of the booty of the expedition to Khaybar. Abu Bakr refused this claim, stating that the property belonged to the whole community, the Prophet having said: 'No one shall inherit from me, but what I leave is for alms.
During the brief two-year period of Abu Bakr's Caliphate, whatever initial support there may have been for 'Ali's candidature melted away in the face of 'Ali's own refusal to advance a claim.
However, despite his, there was a handful of men who steadfastly refused to give their allegiance to Abu Bakr or to anyone other than 'Ali. Four of these men, 'Ammar, Miqdad, Abu Dharr and Salman were acclaimed by Shi’i as the first four of their number and, according to many Traditions, these four were shortly joined by another three.
Shi'i historians scornfully point out that whereas the theoretical justification for the choice of Abu Bakr as Caliph was that this was the consensus of the Muslims, even this claim cannot be made for 'Umar's succession to Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr, on his death-bed, appointed 'Umar as his successor and secured his succession by obtaining pledges of support for 'Umar from several prominent persons. Once again, 'Ali was passed over and was not even consulted.
Under 'Umar's Caliphate, 'Ali remained withdrawn from . public affairs but still refusing to encourage sedition by advancing an alternative claim. The Sunni historians once again minimise the disagreements.
whereas the Shi'is show 'Ali openly disagreeing with some of 'Umar's decisions and publicly showing his contempt for the Caliph on several occasions.
'Umar appointed a council of six men to decide the leadership after him. Although the council included 'Ali, it was weighted in such a way as to make it unlikely that he would be elected . Two of the members of the council, Sa'd and 'Abdu'r-Rahman who were cousins, were naturally inclined to support 'Uthman, who was 'Abdu'r-Rahman's brother-in-Iaw, and moreover, under 'Umar's terms for setting up a council, the casting vote was to be given to 'Abdu'r-Rahman.
The most commonly quoted Traditions state that the result of the deliberations of the council in 644 was that 'Abdu'r-Rahman offered the Caliphate to 'Ali on the condition that he should rule in ·accordance with the Qur'an, the example, of the prophet and the precedents established by the first two Caliphs. Abdu r-Rabman must have known of 'Ali 's disagreement with some of the policies of the first two Caliphs and so it was inevitable that Ali would refuse to bind himself to follow their precedents. 'Abdu'r-Rahman then offered the Caliphate to 'Uthman on the same condition and he accepted.
Even those historians who are staunchly Sunni can scarcely disguise the fact that 'Uthman's Caliphate was something of a disaster for Islam .In place of the strict piety, simplicity and probity that had characterized the leadership of the
community under Muhammad and the first two Caliphs, 'Uthman's leadership was marked by nepotism and a love of wealth and luxury.
He was a weak-minded man who allowed his relative, Marwan, to dominate him and to run the affairs of the community. ‘Uthman was of the house of Umayya and soon members of this family were placed in the highest positions in the community, despite the fact that, in former days, this family had been the most Implacable and the most powerful of the enemies of the Prophet in Mecca and had led the Meccans against the Prophet once he was established in Medina.
Soon there was disaffection in the provinces of the rapidly expanding Muslim empire. In Egypt there was a rising against their Governor, a foster-brother of 'Uthman, who was one of the few people that the Prophet himself had condemned to death at the conquest of Mecca for the crime of interpolating the Qur'an and apostatising (he had been saved by 'Uthman's intervention).
In Kufa (Iraq), the Governor, 'Uthman's half-brother, was disgracing himself by appearing drunk in public. Delegations from Egypt and Iraq arrived in Medina in 656 voicing strong protests to the Caliph. They found support among many of the prominent citizens of Medina such sa Zubayr and Taliha, who each had aspirations for the Cahphate. and Aisha, the wife of the Prophet, who supported Talha.
' Ali was placed in a difficult position. The rebel delegations appealed to him to support their protests and he certainly sympathised with their grievances. But 'Ali, also, was not one to foment discord or to support rebellion. 'Uthman appealed to him to placate the rebels and .Ali did his best to mediate, urging the Caliph, at the same time, to alter his policies. However, in the end, after the rebels found themselves betrayed by the Caliph, 'Uthman's house was attacked and he was killed.
Immediately after the murder of 'Uthman, a crowd surrounded ‘Ali urging him to accept the Caliphate. 'Ali was at first reluctant to accept, given the circumstances, but he was urged to do so from all Sides. The Muhajirun, the Ansar and the delegations from the provinces were all urging acceptance upon him. So eventually he consented. The year was 656 ; it was 24 years since the death of the Prophet of Islam; after almost a quarter of a century in the wilderness, 'Ali had come to the position that he had considered rightfully his all along.
[1] . قرآن سوره 26،آیه 214. «وَ أَنْذِرْ عَشِيرَتَكَ الْأَقْرَبِين»